«The Whig government was not going to take this lying down. In May 1723, Parliament passed the Black Act, which created an extraordinary fifty new offenses that were punishable by hanging. The Black Act made it a crime not only to carry weapons but to have a blackened face. The law in fact was soon amended to make blacking punishable by hanging. The Whig elites went about implementing the law with gusto.»Este pedacito de historia está sacado del libro Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty, escrito por los economistas James A. Robinson y Daron Acemoğlu (hay traducción al español, sitio web y cuenta de Twitter). Su obra trata de responder a la pregunta de por qué algunas naciones prosperan económicamente mientras otras permanecen transidas de pobreza.
Foto de missy & the universe |
La tesis defendida por los autores es que los países fracasan cuando tienen lo que denominan instituciones políticas y económicas extractivas, esto es, instituciones diseñadas para extraer los ingresos y la riqueza de un subconjunto de la sociedad en beneficio de un subgrupo diferente. Para ellos el éxito económico de una nación vendría determinado por los incentivos creados por las instituciones económicas, instituciones cuya naturaleza depende de las políticas. Los países ricos lo son porque consiguieron meter en cintura a las élites privilegiadas, limitando su poder y recortando sus privilegios mediante instituciones inclusivas, aquellas que permiten y fomentan la participación de la gran mayoría de las personas en las actividades económicas y políticas:
«Countries such as Great Britain and the United States became rich because their citizens overthrew the elites who controlled power and created a society where political rights were much more broadly distributed, where the government was accountable and responsive to citizens, and where the great mass of people could take advantage of economic opportunities.»El libro está plagado de historias que muestran cómo aquellos que se hacen con el poder tratan de mantenerse en él a base de explotar a los más débiles, oponiéndose a cualquier cambio del statu quo. Según iba navegando por las más de quinientas páginas de Historia no pude dejar de relacionar tales ejemplos con España. Políticos y jueces elegidos a dedo. Impuestos solo a la base de la pirámide. Desigualdad de facto ante la ley. De hecho, el trabajo de Ronbinson y Acemoğlu es el marco teórico en el que César Molinas encuadró su análisis de la clase política española. Veamos a continuación tres ejemplos.
«Nations fail today because their extractive economic institutions do not create the incentives needed for people to save, invest, and innovate. Extractive political institutions support these economic institutions by cementing the power of those who benefit from the extraction. Extractive economic and political institutions, though their details vary under different circumstances, are always at the root of this failure.»
A finales del siglo XIX y durante buena parte del siglo XX los europeos empobrecieron a los africanos sistemáticamente para asegurarse una mano de obra barata que emplear en la floreciente economía minera africana:
«The 1897 testimony of George Albu, the chairman of the Association of Mines, given to a Commission of Inquiry pithily describes the logic of impoverishing Africans so as to obtain cheap labor. He explained how he proposed to cheapen labor by “simply telling the boys that their wages are reduced.” His testimony goes as follows:El régimen de apartheid sudafricano (que se mantuvo hasta 1994) añadió otro elemento a su estrategia para obtener mano de obra barata:
Commission: Suppose the kaffirs [black Africans] retire back to their kraal [cattle pen]? Would you be in favor of asking the Government to enforce labour?
Albu: Certainly … I would make it compulsory … Why should a nigger be allowed to do nothing? I think a kaffir should be compelled to work in order to earn his living.
Commission: If a man can live without work, how can you force him to work?
Albu: Tax him, then …
Commission: Then you would not allow the kaffir to hold land in the country, but he must work for the white man to enrich him?
Albu: He must do his part of the work of helping his neighbours.»
«The Apartheid regime also realized that educated Africans competed with whites rather than supplying cheap labor to the mines and to white-owned agriculture. [...] It is not surprising that black Africans were uneducated; the South African state not only removed the possibility of Africans benefiting economically from an education but also refused to invest in black schools and discouraged black education. This policy reached its peak in the 1950s, when, under the leadership of Hendrik Verwoerd, one of the architects of the Apartheid regime that would last until 1994, the government passed the Bantu Education Act. The philosophy behind this act was bluntly spelled out by Verwoerd himself in a speech in 1954:En algunas democracias los gobernantes evitan las restricciones constitucionales modelando a su antojo el poder judicial. A mediados del siglo pasado Juan Domingo Perón se hizo con el control de la Corte Suprema argentina (que había declarado inconstitucional una de sus leyes) para gobernar sin trabas:
The Bantu must be guided to serve his own community in all respects. There is no place for him in the European community above the level of certain forms of labour … For that reason it is to no avail to him to receive a training which has as its aim absorption in the European community while he cannot and will not be absorbed there.»
«Shortly after Perón’s victory, his supporters in the Chamber of Deputies proposed the impeachment of four of the five members of the [Supreme] Court. [...] Nine months after initiating the impeachment process, the Chamber of Deputies impeached three of the judges, the fourth having already resigned. The Senate approved the motion. Perón then appointed four new justices. The undermining of the Court clearly had the effect of freeing Perón from political constraints. He could now exercise unchecked power, in much the same way the military regimes in Argentina did before and after his presidency. His newly appointed judges, for example, ruled as constitutional the conviction of Ricardo Balbín, the leader of the main opposition party to Perón, the Radical Party, for disrespecting Perón. Perón could effectively rule as a dictator.»Ahora, si es usted español, piense en las subidas de impuestos de los dos últimos años y en cómo están diseñadas, en el debate por eliminar el salario mínimo, en los jueces nombrados por el gobierno para el Tribunal Constitucional, en cómo se ha querido modificar el código penal para criminalizar las protestas y en cómo el precio de las matrículas universitarias se ha disparado en nuestro país. Dentro de poco será considerado delito el llevar puesta la máscara de Guy Fawkes.
Desgraciadamente, España no es el único país con una democracia acerba que lo es solo sobre el papel. De hecho, en una próxima entrada veremos que incluso países exitosos de acuerdo con la teoría expuesta (Estados Unidos, por ejemplo) podrían considerarse democracias de pastel.
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