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Esta definición del saber es la más conocida y aceptada pero no es perfecta. En 1963 el filósofo Edmund Gettier observó que puede haber creencias justificadas y verdaderas que no son conocimiento. Ilustró su argumento con dos ejemplos:
In the first example, two men, Smith and Jones are up for a job promotion. Smith believes that Jones will get the job, and he believes that Jones has ten coins in his pocket. Because these two sentences involve the same person, Jones, these beliefs also lead to the belief that the man with ten coins in his pocket will get the job. Unbeknownst to Smith, he has ten coins in his own pocket too. When Smith gets the job, it seems fair to state that his belief that the man with ten coins in his pocket will get the job was correct. However, it seems strange to call this belief knowledge since Smith believed the person being referred to was Jones. So it seems that Smith’s belief was false.Los ejemplos de Gettier se antojan extraños porque en nuestra vida cotidiana no hablamos así. No obstante, son lógicamente sólidos. De acuerdo con las leyes de la lógica, cuando utilizamos el conector «o» basta con que una de las partes sea cierta para que la proposición completa lo sea. Así, frases como «o Silvio Broca es una ameba o la Tierra es redonda» son verdaderas. La conclusión de este autor es que podemos llegar a creer de forma justificada algo que es falso y que la justificación basada en pruebas no elimina todos los casos en los que llegamos a saber por mera cuestión de suerte.
[...] In the second example Gettier uses, Smith believes that Jones owns a Ford and he has good reasons for believing this. So, Smith goes ahead and constructs three statements after selecting three random places where his good friend Brown may be located. With any statement that is true, by adding the proposition “or” and a second statement, the new statement is also true. For example: “All unmarried men are bachelors” is true. “Martians exist” is not true. But “Either all unmarried men are bachelors or Martians exist” is true. By using the same logic in the previous example, Smith forms the following statements:
A:Either Jones owns a Ford, or Brown is in Boston.
B:Either Jones owns a Ford, or Brown is in Barcelona.
C:Either Jones owns a Ford, or Brown is in Brest-Litovsk.
Just as in the first example, it turns out that Smith is correct by accident. It turns out that Jones doesn’t own a Ford, instead the Ford Jones has given Smith a ride in was a rental. Brown is in Barcelona. Now, this would seem like a lucky guess, and once again, we would be hard-pressed to call this odd stroke of truth-generating luck knowledge.
Si las creencias verdaderas y justificadas no son suficientes para calificarlas de conocimiento ¿qué más hace falta? Una posibilidad es que lo importante en realidad sea cómo hemos llegado a albergar dicha creencia:
Since Gettier shows that justified true beliefs fail to count as knowledge, philosophers continue to search for new ways of justifying human knowledge. One of the most prominent ways is to show that it’s the process of coming to know something that produces knowledge. If the process by which one perceives objects is reliable, then we can say it’s the reliability of the process that causes one to have knowledge. This position is called reliabilism.De acuerdo con esta posición filosófica, lo principal no son las pruebas sino la probabilidad de que la creencia sea cierta, y nuestra creencia estará justificada siempre y cuando hayamos llegado a ella a través de un método fiable, esto es, uno que tienda a producir creencias verdaderas (por ejemplo, el método científico). Si este requisito se cumple entonces podremos decir que sabemos algo.
Reliabilism attempts to explain knowledge in a way that accepts the limitations of human knowledge. It maintains that humans do make mistakes and that our perceptions can be flawed. Because humans are fallible, knowledge that requires certainty should be rejected. Instead, we should focus on the degrees to which our beliefs count as knowledge. For reliabilism, we might have certain knowledge of stuff like mathematics, but our knowledge of everyday interactions with the world should be judged by how reliable our beliefs are produced.
¿Qué significa esto para nuestro cuñado? Significa que para saber no necesita pruebas o buenas razones, todo lo que se requiere es que crea que lo que dice es cierto y que haya llegado a creerlo a través de un mecanismo fiable. Si, verbigracia, leer el periódico o Yahoo Respuestas produjera creencias verdaderas nueve de cada diez veces entonces deberíamos reconocer que nuestro cuñado demuestra poseer conocimiento cuando se deleita repitiendo lo que ha leído ahí.
Sin embargo, no todo método fiable produce conocimiento. Aunque la astrología fuera fiable seguiría sin ser fuente de conocimiento como sí lo es el método científico. ¿Por qué? Porque solo este último está conectado con el mundo externo de forma causal:
Leonard Koppett reliably predicted the rise and fall of the stock market for eighteen out of nineteen years between 1979 and 1998. Using reliabilism, we might be tempted to say that his reliable ability to have predicted the future suggests he had some sort of knowledge about the future. The truth is, however, Koppett was a writer for Sporting News, and he based his predictions concerning the stock market on which league won the Super Bowl. He picked a random event and applied its outcome to an unconnected event, the stock market. Koppett’s beliefs were in no way connected to the stock market, neither causally nor otherwise. So, reliabilism concludes that he didn’t have knowledge.Obviamente, el confiabilismo no es la panacea. Tal como explica Abraham Schwab, que un proceso sea fiable no significa que sea infalible. La falibilidad de nuestro proceso significa que no podemos obtener certezas sino únicamente cierta probabilidad de verdad. Así, algunas de nuestras creencias resultarán ser falsas pero a, cambio, esta postura nos permite creer más cosas de las que estaríamos justificados a creer si el requerimiento para el saber fuera tener certeza absoluta.
From the point of view of reliabilism, knowledge results from being causally connected to the world through our reliable belief-forming senses. Predicting the future based on random sporting events is an impressive trick, but it’s not a skill. So, even though Koppett’s predictions were reliable they don’t count as knowledge.
Continuará.